hISTORY OF THE PERSIAN CARPET

At the begining

The Pazyryk carpet

The so-called "Pazyryk carpets" discovered in 1949 in the Pazyryk Tombs southeast of Novosibirsk in Western Siberia have long been believed to have been made in Achaemenid Persia. However, as a result of recent research, the carpet is thought to have been made in Central Asia this theory has become more dominant. Excavations of the Pazyryk burial mounds by the Soviet Archaeological Institute were carried out in 1929 by Mikhail P. Guryaznov and by Sergei I. Rudenko from 1947 to 1949 at Tombs No. 2 to No. 5. These burial mounds are called "kurgan". The mounds have a complex structure in which the entrance room in the ground is surrounded by double wooden coffins stacked in the style of a school building, and the ceiling is a pile of logs and bark, branches, and soil before stones are used to cover it. Although the area is not in a permafrost zone, due to its structure and temporary climatic conditions, the soil and sand that seeped into the inside of the burial mound and frooze in the winter, miraculously preserving the burial goods which included metal articles, wood articles, and textile products such as felt, etc.

The carpet found in Tomb No. 5, which was 183 centimeters long and 200 centimeters wide, became known as the "Pazyryk carpet" . This carpet is estimated to have been made around 260~250 BC by carbon dating, the carpet is made of 360,000 knots per square meter. The pattern of the field is very similar to the floor decoration of the royal palace in Nineveh (Iraq), and the statue of a man and horse on the border is very similar to the sculpture in Persepolis (the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire) thus the theory that it was made in Achaemenid Persia presented by Rudenko and others was prevalent. however, it was discovered that the dye used was not from the scale insect of the genus kermes that inhabits a large area from the mediterranean coast to the zargos mountains of iran. The dye was from the indian lac insect Laccifer lacca that is native to india and southeast asia. Hence the centeral theory became dominant.

Subsequently, in 1954, Rudenko excavated the burial mounds of Bashadar, 800 kilometers west of Pazyryk. At this time, a fragment of a pile carpet was found in Mound No. 2.
The carpet was used as a saddle, and had about 490,000 knots per square meter. The pile of the carpet was tied with a Persian knot, which is an interesting discovery that shows that there were already two ways to tie knots from this period. It was not possible to deduce the pattern from this small fragment, but carbon dating revealed that it is about 130 to 170 years older than the Pazyryk carpet.

Since knives presumed to have been used for carpet making have been excavated from Bronze Age burial mounds in northeastern Iran, there seems to be no doubt that carpets were already being made in old Persia, However, since there is no surviving physical evidence, we are left to study what they could’ve looked like from the books and miniatures that have been left behind.

The khosrow spring carpet theory

A famous historian named Abu Jafar tabar who was alive during the Abbasid period wrote in his history book of the Apostles and Kings that there is a description of the carpet that was laid in the royal palace of Ctesiphon, the capital of the Iranian empire Dubbed the "Khosrow Spring" or "Baharestan" (Persian for "Land of Spring"), the carpet was created during the reign of Khosrow I, the 21st monarch of the Persian empire and is one of four pieces made on the theme of the four seasons.

According to “Abu Jafar Tabari” the carpet was a huge size with a length of 140 meters and a width of 27 meters. it is said that gold threads, silver threads, and various gemstones were used on a silk ground to weave a spring landscape of flowers in full bloom The History of the Apostles and Kings is known for its accuracy and detail, but it does not reveal how the carpet was constructed. Possibilities include jewels and precious stones sewn into a woven kilim, and pile weaves with gemstones sewn on the same "suf" ground as a polonaise carpet . However, even Tabari is only description has no primary sources to support the existence of the Khosrow Spring. Althernatively the Khosrow Spring is said to have been cut into pieces and taken away by Arabs when the conquered the capital in 637, invading persia at the time

in Iran, during the Ilkhanate and Timurid periods, miniature paintings (miniatures) that incorporated elements of Chinese painting into ancient Byzantine and Hellenistic art developed. Many carpets are depicted in these miniatures, which is a clue into the Persian carpet made in this period, The carpet depicted in the miniature paintings of the first half of the 15th century have patterns of octagons and diamonds, similar to the Turkish carpets that appear in Western paintings of the 15th century.
In the latter half of the 15th century, the pattern became curved and sleek, and medallions started appearing

In Persia during the Safavid period, workshops were opened in various places under the support of the imperial court, this was the golden age of carpet weaving . In particular, during the reigns of the second monarch, Tahamasp I, and the fifth monarch, Abbas I, stellar examples were created.

During the reign of Tahamasap I ( 1514-1575) the following carpets were made

State-funded workshop number 1

The oldest surviving Persian carpet with the year of manufacture inscribed in the carpet is said to be the "Hunting Pattern Carpet", which is now in the collection of the Porti Pezzoli Museum in Milan. The hunting pattern carpet was found in 1870 in the Quirinale Palace in Rome. The Quirinale Palace was built in 1583 as the summer residence of Pope Gregory XIII, and was once the residence of the Pope and the Papal Government. The carpet consists of several fragments, and the missing parts were woven in tapestry stitch, perhaps in Florence between 1875 and 1900 by the tapestry maker Castellani (Mottola Molfino, 1977-1978, p. 2) or in 1895 by the tapestry maker Gentili in Rome (Pope, 1927, p. 106). One of the lost fragments (48 x 135 cm.) donated by Alessandro Bruschettini, was rejoined to the carpet in 2008, sewn in its original position. There is a dispute regarding the date of execution visible in the center of the rug in the inscription. The second digit is imperfect and can be read either “2” or “4,” so the date could be either 929 Year of the Hegira (1522-1523) or 949 (1542-1543), the latter date being more justifiable from a stylistic point of view. The carpet is made of wool pile, silk warps and cotton wefts . The city of origin is probably tabriz.

Hunting pattern carpet- THE OLDEST SURVIVING PATTERN

Perhaps the most famous of all ancient masterpieces in the world is the "Ardebiil Carpet" one copy belongs to the Victoria and Albert Museum and one copy belongs to the Los angeles County Musuem of Art. The ardebil carpet is a large masterpiece of about 60 square meters made by Maksud Kashani in the year 946 (1539/40 AD). The carpet is made of wool pile, silk warps and cotton wefts . The city of origin is said to be probably tabriz although there is a theory that this carpet is also of kashan origins.

The ardebil carpet - The best of the old persian carpets

Tabriz was occupied by Ottoman Turkey in the year the ardebil carpets was made, there are many people who dispute tabriz as the city of origin and are in favour of kashan as the city of manufacturing. The Ardebil carpets were stored in the mausoleum of Sheikh Safi Eddin, the founder of the mystical sufi sect that later founded the Safavid dynasty, and the name of the Ardebil carpets is derived from the city of ardebil, where this mausoleum is located. The pair of carpets were put up for sale to pay for the mausoleum’s renovation. The carpets were initially purchased by the UK’s Famous rug making company Ziegler & Co. they later sold both carpets. The large carpet was purchased by the victoria and alberta musuem under the constant pursuasion of the art dealer Edward Stebbing. However it was william morris in his capacity as a curator that helped to raise aid from the public in the vast sum of 2000 pounds to purchase the carpet in 1893. The smaller secret carpet was purchased by Clarence Mackay, finally making its way to Lord Duveen. In an exhibition in 1931 the carpet was revealed to the public and J. Paul Getty saw it and purchased it for $70,000 several years later finally donating it to the los angeles county museum of science, history and art where it now finally resides.

william Morris (1834-1896)

Jean Paul Getty (1892-1976

Other stellar examples of carpets made during the reign of Tahamasap I are the chelsea carpet and the coronation carpet

This stunning carpet, woven in Iran during the first half of the sixteenth century under the Safavid dynasty, showcases exquisite craftsmanship. Although it lacks inscriptions identifying a specific patron, place, or date, its design closely resembles early Safavid book arts and similar hunting carpets.

The large-scale medallion carpet features a sophisticated and intricate design that reveals its beauty upon closer examination. Its layout consists of two central lobed black medallions aligned along the central axis, each surrounded by four diagonal, radiating oval pendants, all set against a deep red field. The medallions are echoed by quarter-medallions in each corner and half-medallions along the sides. Each medallion displays a refined radial pattern of yellow strapwork and large flowers, while the oval pendants are adorned with fluttering birds and Chinese-style cloudbands. Beneath this medallion arrangement, the red field depicts a lush, diverse garden landscape, rich with trees and wildlife.. The chelsea carpet has a dense weave of 720,000 knots

The Coronation Carpet is so named because of its use at the coronation of Queen Victoria’s son, Edward VII, in the United Kingdom in 1902. The carpet is very large, at 23 by 12 feet, which is likely why it was selected for the event. It is a wool pile thought to be woven in Tabriz. The carpet, which was also depicted in a painting by Edwin Austin Abbey. The fields are woven with blue cartouches representing flowing water, trees and cypresses filled with flowers, dragons, phoenixes, and qilin from China, which is why it is also called the "Paradise Garden Carpet". At the time of his coronation, the carpet belonged to United States billionaire Marsden Perry. After that, it passed through several people and passed into the hands of oil tycoon Jean Paul Getty. While Getty was known as a world-class art collector, In 1949, the year after Getty moved to the United Kingdom, he donated the coronation carpet to the los angeles county museum of science, history and art.

Shah Abbas I (reigned 1588-1629), was a very prominent figure that came to the throne through a troubled time and brought about several reforms, Under his rule several carpets such as the “Vase pattern carpet”, “Polonaize carpet” , “Garden carpet” and the Coronation Carpet flourished . It is said that about 1,500 of the Persian carpets made during the Safavid period are still in existence.Some of them appeared at auctions sponsored by prestigious auction houses such as Sotheby's and Christie's.

The Coronation Carpet is a Persian carpet owned by the Danish royal family. It is stored at Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen. The carpet was made in Isfahan in the 17th century. The size is 12 feet, 2 inches by 17 feet, 1 inch. As the name suggests, it is the carpet on which Danish kings were anointed.

The vase pattern carpet is a series of designs featuring vases, palmettes, and rosettes arranged in an oblique lattice. Today, about 50 examples, including fragments, are still known to exist. One of the most renowned pieces in the Victoria and Albert Museum’s collection once belonged to William Morris, a poet, designer, and socialist activist with extensive knowledge of Persian carpets. In 1897, the South Kensington Art Museum, the precursor to the Victoria and Albert Museum, acquired the carpet from William Morris. William Morris was a poet, designer and a socialist. There is debate over whether the carpet is from Kerman or Joshagan, though no definitive evidence confirms either origin. A notable feature of all vase pattern carpets is their use of triple wefts: two thin threads combined with one thick thread, which is a key structural characteristic.

The Polonaise carpet is a collection of intricately decorative pieces that feature a combination of gold and silver kilim weaving with silk pile weaving. It is believed these carpets were crafted in workshops near the courts of Isfahan or Kashan. Approximately 230 of these carpets, also known as "Poland carpets," are thought to still exist today. The name "Polonaise" arose from a misunderstanding linked to Poland's kilim weaving traditions and the presence of various Polish coats of arms on the carpets. When these carpets were exhibited at the Poland Pavilion during the Vienna Expo, there was no question of their Polish origin. However, later records revealed that King Sigismund III of Poland had actually commissioned them from Safavid Persia in 1601/02 as a dowry for his daughter Anna, confirming that they were made in Iran.

The exact journey of this carpet after its creation in a royal workshop remains unclear, but by 1621, it was in the palace of the Ottoman Emperor in Istanbul. During the Battle of Khotin, when the Ottoman Turks were defeated by the Austrians with a notable flank attack by Prince Sanguszko of Poland, the carpet was seized as war booty and taken to Prince-General Sanguszko’s tent. It subsequently remained in the possession of the Sanguszko family.

The carpet first came to public attention in 1904 when it was exhibited in St. Petersburg. It was later rediscovered by Arthur Upham Pope and prominently displayed again in 1931 at the International Exhibition (Congress) of Persian Art in London, where it created a significant sensation. For the next twenty-three years, Pope exhibited it on loan.

In 1949, the carpet was showcased during the visit of the Shah of Iran to Pope's Asia Institute in New York. In 1951, Pope identified a similar design on a war vest of Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), made from a Kashan flat weave, confirming that the designs were derived from the same pattern used in the carpet.

When the Asia Institute closed in 1954, Pope recommended that Prince Roman Sanguszko loan the carpet to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, where it was displayed until 1995, when it was sold. After a centuries-long journey through various locations, the carpet has finally found a secure and permanent home.

16th Century Medallion Tabriz carpet

A medallion pattern carpet auctioned at Christie's in London in 1999 sold for $2.4 million. Believed to have been crafted in Tabriz during the 16th century, the carpet measures 6.60 meters in length and 3.58 meters in width. It was originally inherited by Baron Nathaniel Rothschild of the United Kingdom and later passed to Baron Albert Salomon Anselm von Rothschild of Austria. The carpet was reportedly looted by the Nazis during World War II. The winning bid was placed by the Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. The carpet is now housed in the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha, which opened in Qatar's capital in 2008.

In 2010, at the auction of Christie's London, a vase pattern carpet said to have been made in Kerman in the middle of the 17th century was sold for 7.2 million euros

In 2013, a Persian carpet, believed to be from Kerman and dating to the mid-17th century, was auctioned at Sotheby's New York, fetching a record-breaking $33.7 million—the highest price ever for a carpet. This piece, known as the "William A. Clark Carpet," was named in honor of its former owner, William A. Clark, a Montana senator, mining magnate, and banker. The carpet features distinctive sickle-shaped leaves and measures 2.67 meters in length and 1.96 meters in width. The final bid was approximately six times higher than Sotheby's initial estimate.

The Safavid Empire, which was so prosperous that it was said to be "half the world", gradually declined after the death of Abbas I.
After the death of Abbas I, the Safavid Empire, once renowned for its prosperity and described as "half the world," began to decline. In 1722, the Afghan army led by Mir Mahmoud captured and effectively destroyed the capital, Isfahan. The carpet workshops of the royal court, which had relied on patronage, were closed, leading to a collapse of the carpet industry in urban areas. Despite this, carpet weaving in rural and nomadic regions, which operated independently of royal support, continued without interruption.

Following Mir Mahmoud’s assassination in 1725, Nadir Quli Beg from the Afshar Tribal Confederation established the Afshar dynasty and became Nadir Shah. He launched campaigns into Afghanistan and India, culminating in the 1739 defeat of the Mughal Empire and the capture of Delhi. As spoils of war, numerous carpets were brought back to Iran and dispersed across various regions. These carpets influenced the designs of carpets made by rural and nomadic weavers in Iran. This historical exchange is evident in the presence of the Herati pattern, originally from Khorassan, in carpets from northwestern and southwestern Iran, and the similarity between the mihrab pattern of Kashgai carpets and Mughal designs.

Despite the rich tradition of carpet-making in these regions, village and nomadic carpets were primarily produced for local use or immediate sale, rather than for export. During this period, Iran’s main export industry was the production of raw silk.

In the mid-19th century, cholera, which had originated in Europe, spread from Turkey to Iran, severely impacting the country’s raw silk industry, a major export. In response to this economic downturn, Persian carpets emerged as a key alternative business for generating revenue. Unlike during the Safavid period, when carpet production primarily catered to the royal aristocracy, the focus shifted to include the burgeoning middle class. This change was driven by the expansion of the middle class due to the Industrial Revolution, making carpets more accessible to a broader market.

Following the Vienna International Exposition of 1873, demand for carpets in Europe surged dramatically. At this time, Ziegler & Co., a trading company from Manchester, UK, entered the Iranian market. In 1883, they established a branch in Sultanabad (now Arak) and initially focused on selling cotton products. The branch manager, Oskar Strauss, devised a strategy to use the Russian gold coins received for cotton sales to purchase old carpets and resell them in Europe.

However, as the supply of remaining Safavid carpets dwindled, Strauss decided to establish a carpet workshop in Sultanabad. This move enabled him to produce new carpets, meeting the growing demand. His venture proved highly successful, and at its peak, the company operated 2,500 looms.

Following the success of the Ziegler Company, other foreign firms and Tabriz merchants established carpet workshops across Iran. During this period, Iran was grappling with the aftermath of wars with Russia and internal civil strife. Despite these challenges, the carpet industry began to flourish, expanding rapidly into urban areas. This expansion marked a remarkable revival of the carpet industry in Iran, transforming it into a thriving sector once again.

In the 19th century several prominent master weavers started to flourish, too many to list, please refer to the troves tab for more information

Between the end of the 19th century and the outbreak of the First World War, the carpet industry in Iran experienced a remarkable revival. During this period, a standout workshop emerged, later hailed as "the best carpet workshop of the 20th century." This workshop was founded by Abdul and Ali Amoghli in Mashhad, a town in northeastern Iran.

Abdul's father, Mohammad Kakhnemoy, was originally a silk merchant from the Azerbaijan region. Abdul began his carpet business in Tabriz before relocating to Mashhad in the 1880s, where he adopted the surname Amoghli and started producing carpets. Growing up in such an environment, Abdul developed a deep passion for carpets and honed his skills as a master weaver. His younger brother, Ali Khan, joined him in expanding the business.

Abdul was dedicated to crafting carpets with exquisite weaves, often featuring between 1.2 million and 2 million knots, which became renowned for their supple texture, akin to fabric. His exceptional work attracted the attention of Reza Shah, who commissioned grand carpets for his palace and the Parliament Building.

Despite Abdul's fame, he never amassed significant wealth. After Abdul's death, the workshop continued under Ali Khan's management but ultimately closed in the late 1940s.

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 significantly disrupted Iran’s carpet industry, which had heavily relied on European markets for exports. Germany, a major importer of Persian carpets, entered the war, causing serious problems, particularly for the carpet industry in Sultanabad.

Amidst these challenges, S. Tiriakian from a New York-based company visited Sultanabad and requested carpets designed specifically for the American market. These carpets, featuring a rose-red field with floral branches, marked a departure from traditional Persian designs. Sultanabad seized this opportunity to tap into a new export market, and a series of carpets known as "American Sarouk" were produced in response. These carpets, with their unique designs, were exported in large quantities to the United States during the 1920s and 1930s, sparking a significant boom.

The popularity of the American Sarouk style led to similar carpets being produced in other regions, including Kashan, Hamadan, and Kerman. However, the boom was short-lived. The global economic downturn triggered by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 eventually led to the decline of the American Sarouk market in the 1930s.

The American Saruk carpets produced in the 1920s featured sleek, fern-like leaves that emerged from the top, bottom, edges, and center of the field. However, in the 1930s, the design evolved to a style more akin to the modern American Saruk, with bouquets scattered throughout the entire field.

In 1921, Colonel Reza Khan, the commander of the Persian Brigade, enlisted the Bachtiari Tribal Confederation to lay siege to Tehran. This coup led to his appointment as prime minister and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Gaining the trust of the populace by repealing the United Kingdom's extraterritorial rights in Iran, Reza Khan was instrumental in the country's political transformation. By 1925, Ahmad Shah had traveled to France for medical treatment, and the parliament abolished the Qajar dynasty. Reza Khan, now adopting the name "Reza Shah," ascended to the throne, establishing the Pahlavi dynasty.

Reza Shah embarked on a series of modernization efforts, instituting reforms across the judiciary, finance, military, and education sectors, and advancing women's rights. In 1935, he officially renamed the country "Iran," meaning "the land of the Persians." During this period, the Iran Carpet Corporation (ICC) was established, nationalizing the operations of foreign companies such as Ziegler & Co., Eastern Rug Co., and Oriental Carpet Manufactures (OCM), which had previously operated in Iran. The ICC began operations the following year.

Reza Shah viewed the carpet industry as a crucial sector for the nation. To preserve employment for carpet craftsmen affected by the Great Depression and to restore the authenticity of Persian carpets, the ICC implemented a rigorous production method. This involved using high-quality spring wool, dyed with natural dyes, and ensuring uniform color across all production areas.

The ICC made significant strides in revitalizing traditional carpet production, including the creation of the world's largest carpet, measuring 5,627 square meters and weighing 47 tons, which was installed in the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi in 2007. At its peak, the ICC employed 20,000 weavers, though this number has since dwindled to 2,000. To address production shortages, the ICC began accepting private contractors around 2005 and has recently undergone privatization.

Aside from the ICC, another state-run entity, the "Handloom Carpet Producers' Association" (ETFA), operates under the Ministry of Agriculture. Established in 1985 following the Islamic Revolution, ETFA aims to support the carpet industry, which faced investment losses due to the revolution, and to sustain employment. In 1987, it also founded the Handloom Carpet Sales Association to manage sales.

During World War II, Reza Shah, who had close ties to the Axis powers, abdicated his throne under pressure from Britain and the Soviet Union. His son, Mohammad Reza, then became the second emperor of Iran. Despite Mohammad Reza Shah's continuation of promoting the carpet industry, the war significantly impacted Iran's carpet production, leading to a decline in the quality of carpets like Kashan and Machado, which were popular in Europe. Following the war, as Germany experienced a reconstruction boom, many Iranian carpet merchants relocated there. In the 1960s, notable carpet artists during Mohammad Reza Shah's reign included Alabaf of Tabriz, Reza Sarafian, and Hekmatnejad of Isfahan, Fathulla Habibian of Nain, and Saber of Mashad. Noteworthy designers from this era were Issa Bahadori of Arak (later Isfahan), Ahmad Archang of Isfahan, and Rassam Arabzadeh of Tabriz (later Tehran).

During the Pahlavi era, the study of Persian carpets emerged as a discipline, with Arthur Cecil Edwards from the United Kingdom being a pioneering figure in this field. Edwards, who was the nephew of James Baker, a founder of Oriental Carpet Manufactures (OCM), relocated to Hamadan in central western Iran with his wife Clara in 1911 to expand OCM's operations into Iran. He established hand-woven carpet factories in Hamadan, Sultanabad (now Arak), and Kerman, which played a significant role in revitalizing the carpet industry in Iran. In 1923, Edwards returned to London and assumed an executive role at OCM. However, his time in Iran sparked a deep interest in Persian carpets, leading him to return to Iran in 1948 with his wife to further his expertise in this area. Edwards extensively traveled across Iran for several months, gathering detailed information on Persian carpets. Tragically, he passed away in 1953. Following his death, Clara compiled the extensive records he had amassed and published them as "THE PERSIAN CARPET," which has since become a seminal guide for carpet researchers worldwide. The book was reprinted on April 7, 2018, by Gerald Duckworth.

In 1979, an anti-government protest in Qom escalated into a nationwide uprising, leading to the Iranian Revolution. Mohammad Reza Shah fled to Egypt, resulting in the downfall of the Pahlavi dynasty. With Ruhollah Khomeini assuming the role of supreme leader, Iran underwent a transition to become an Islamic republic. Despite these political changes, carpet weavers like Seirafian and Hekmat Nejad continued their work as usual. However, there was a noticeable shift in the industry to silk rugs.